Kawasaki disease

What is Kawasaki disease?

Synonyms: Kawasaki's disease, Kawasaki/Kawasaki's syndrome, mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome, infantile periarteritis nodosa, infantile polyarteritis nodosa

Kawasaki disease is an idiopathic self-limiting systemic vasculitis that most often affects children in the age range 6 months to 5 years. It predominantly affects children of Asian origin, particularly Japanese and Chinese populations (possibly because of genetic susceptibility) but there is an appreciable worldwide incidence. It was first described in 1967 by Tomisaku Kawasaki, a Japanese paediatrician. ¹

It has taken over from rheumatic fever as the most common cause of acquired childhood heart disease in the developed world. Deaths and significant morbidity occur through its major complication of coronary artery aneurysm formation. ² Prior to its delineation, cases had been described and classified on histological grounds as infantile polyarteritis/periarteritis nodosa. Early diagnosis and early treatment are now strongly advocated to reduce complications and have been shown to do so.

Its characteristic features are outlined below:

How common is Kawasaki disease? (epidemiology)²

The highest annual incidence is thought to occur in Japan at 2243.1 and 264.8 cases per 100,000 children aged under and over 5 years respectively.¹³

The incidence appears to be rising year on year in Japan.³

The incidence of Kawasaki disease in Europe is 5-10 per 100,000 children aged under 5 years, with Ireland showing the highest incidence of up to 15.2 per 100,000 children aged under 5 years.³ The incidence is between 10 and 20 per 100,000 children under the age of 5 in North America. ¹The higher incidence in Northeast Asians persists after migration to countries with lower incidence.

There is clear variation in incidence with ethnicity, with a bias towards East Asian children. A study from Hawaii showed an annual incidence of 210 per 100,000 Japanese American children under 5 years, compared to 13 per 100,000 white children.⁴

A UK study showed Asian children to have an incidence of 2.1 compared with white children, whereas Black children had a relative incidence of 3.0 and "other ethnicities" had a relative incidence of 4.5. This increased risk for Black children and those of "other ethnicity" was a new finding.⁵

In the UK, children from lower socio-economic backgrounds have been found to be more likely to be admitted with Kawasaki disease. ⁵

The diagnosis is frequently missed, as the early stages mimic many viral infections. A study into diagnosis by UK GPs demonstrated a delay of more than 10 days between presentation and admission in 7% of cases.⁶

The peak incidence between the ages of 18 and 24 months. It is 1.5 times more common in boys.⁵

In the UK, there is also a seasonal variation with more cases presenting in the winter months. ⁵

Recent studies have suggested a higher incidence in the UK than was previously recognised.⁵

Causes of Kawasaki disease (aetiology and pathophysiology)²

These remain a mystery, although a combination of an infective trigger and genetic susceptibility seems likely. Seasonal differences and epidemics seem to suggest an infective component but no single pathogen has yet been identified. A genetic component to susceptibility is assumed from the much higher incidence in Asian children, particularly those from Japan or Korea. Studies during covid suggest a possible person-to-person transmission route that has previously not been thought to exist. ⁷

There is an increased incidence of a history of Kawasaki disease among the parents of a Kawasaki disease patient, and an increased incidence among siblings and extended family members of an index case. Family linkage studies and genome-wide association studies have shown that susceptibility and disease outcome, including aneurysm formation and response to intravenous immunoglobulin, are influenced by variants in several different genes and signalling pathways, which vary across populations. Siblings are 10-20 times more likely to develop Kawasaki disease than other members of the population. ¹⁸

It is assumed that an infective agent (not necessarily a single one) triggers an abnormal immune response in certain individuals. The condition is caused by an autoimmune-mediated systemic vasculitis that affects small- and medium-sized arteries and in multiple organs and tissues during the acute febrile phase. Wind-borne and wave-borne pathogens have been thought to have some responsibility for Kawasaki disease development; various studies have postulated bacterial or viral causes. A study has shown that 40% of children with Kawasaki disease tested positive for a viral respiratory pathogen.¹²⁹

Symptoms of Kawasaki disease

The usual presenting feature is a fever of abrupt onset. The child tends to be very irritable and unwell when febrile, often out of proportion to the severity of the fever. Most consider that the fever must have been present for at least five days for Kawasaki disease to be diagnosed; however, experienced clinicians may make the diagnosis earlier in its course, if there are other classical features.

As well as fever of 39°C or more, there must be at least four of the following to fit the diagnostic criteria (or echocardiographic evidence of coronary artery aneurysms):

• Inflammation and irritation of the lips, mouth and/or tongue (eg, cracked lips, strawberry tongue, inflamed mucosa of mouth or pharynx).

• Erythema, oedema and/or desquamation of the extremities.

• Bilateral dry conjunctivitis.

• Widespread non-vesicular rash.

• Cervical lymphadenopathy (which may be >1.5 cm in size).¹

These features may occur in turn, so some may have gone at the time of presentation; therefore, a careful history is important. Incomplete Kawasaki disease is the term given to those with fever but without enough other features to fit the diagnostic criteria. This is common - 15-20% of cases - and comes with an increased risk of complications, probably due to diagnostic delay.

Other possible features include lethargy, urethritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal pain, myalgia, arthralgia and arthritis, along with other less common features listed in the 'Subsidiary features of the disease' section below.

Assess children with fever lasting five days or more for Kawasaki disease.¹⁰

Always ask parents whether the child has had any of the symptoms below since the onset of fever, because they may have resolved by the time of assessment.¹⁰

Be aware that children aged under 1 year may present with fewer clinical features of Kawasaki disease in addition to fever, but may be at higher risk of coronary artery abnormalities than older children. ¹⁰

Signs of Kawasaki disease

• The lips typically become erythematous or fissured, along with inflamed oral mucosa and the presence of a 'strawberry tongue' - so-called because it is extremely erythematous with prominent papillae.

• The rash is described as a polymorphic exanthem and comes on within 3-5 days of the onset of fever. It usually begins with nonspecific erythema of the soles, palms and perineum, spreading to involve the trunk and the rest of the extremities. It is often itchy and variable in appearance but is never vesiculo-bullous. It is usually markedly red and may appear macular, morbilliform, papular, scarlatiniform, urticarial, akin to erythema multiforme or be made up of very many tiny micropustules.

• Desquamation may affect the perineal area, moving to the fingers and then the toes. In the extremities, it usually begins in the periungual region.

• The hands and feet often become red and swollen and tender before desquamation begins.

• The conjunctivitis is never associated with exudate, is bilateral and tends to spare the perilimbal area.

• Cervical lymphadenopathy is usually unilateral and non-tender, and affects the anterior cervical chain.

• Cardiovascular signs are usually nonspecific. Tachycardia, a hyperdynamic precordium, a gallop rhythm or a flow murmur may be present; however, these signs are not unusual in febrile patients without Kawasaki disease. There are occasionally signs of valvular incompetence.

• Other possible signs include:
  

  • Neck stiffness due to aseptic meningitis.

  • Hepatomegaly and jaundice.

Mnemonics for Kawasaki disease

WarmCREAM

Warm = Fever for > 5 days

• C = Conjunctivitis without exudate

• R = Rash

• E = Edema or erythema of hands or feet, followed by desquamation and nail changes

• A = Adenopathy, often unilateral, cervical node > 1.5 cm

• M = Mucosal erythema, fissures or crusting of lips or strawberry tongue

FEBRILE

• F = Fever for > 5 days

• E = Enanthem of mucosal membranes

• B = Bulbar conjunctivitis

• R = Rash, erythematous, polymorphous

• I = Internal organ involvement: coronary, abdominal, pneumonitis, hepatitis, orchitis

• E = Extremity changes, initial edema, and erythema, desquamation, nail changes

Phases of the illness

The disease typically follows three phases, as outlined in the table below:

Subsidiary features of the disease

• Cardiovascular - pancarditis, aortic or mitral incompetence.

• Gastrointestinal - hydrops of gallbladder, jaundice, diarrhoea.

• Blood - mild anaemia.

• Renal - sterile pyuria, mild proteinuria.

• CNS - aseptic meningitis.

• Musculoskeletal - arthritis, arthralgia.

• Others - anterior uveitis, BCG-site inflammation.¹¹

Differential diagnosis

• Measles.

• Rubella.

• Infectious mononucleosis.

• Enteroviruses.

• Parvovirus B19 infection.

• Any bacterial infection - especially staphylococcal and streptococcal infections causing staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, toxic shock syndrome and scarlet fever.

• Toxic epidermal necrolysis.

• Other drug reactions, particularly erythema multiforme and Stevens-Johnson syndrome.

• Meningitis or encephalitis.

• Tick-borne disease such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and relapsing fever.

• Mercury toxicity (acrodynia).

• Toxoplasmosis.

Diagnosing Kawasaki disease (investigations)

• There is no diagnostic test for the condition. Diagnosis is made clinically and depends on the presence of the diagnostic features described above.

• Urinalysis may show sterile pyuria ± proteinuria.

• FBC during the acute phase usually shows leukocytosis and neutrophilia, and acute-phase reactant markers such as ESR and CRP are usually elevated.

• Platelets are elevated and there may be a marked thrombocythaemia that develops throughout the second and third weeks of the illness.

• LFTs may show elevation of the transaminases and bilirubin.

• Abdominal ultrasound can show evidence of gallbladder distension.

• ECG may show a range of conduction abnormalities due to myocarditis.

• Echocardiography is essential. It can reveal dilatation and aneurysms of the coronary arteries, as well as allowing assessment of the pericardium and left ventricular/valvular function. Serial echocardiography is often needed to detect occult coronary artery disease as the illness evolves.

Evaluation of suspected incomplete Kawasaki disease⁸

In children with fever for five or more days and two or three compatible clinical criteria, or in infants with fever for seven or more days without other explanation, a scientific statement from the American Heart Association recommends:

• If CRP is <3.0 mg/dL and ESR is <40 mm/hr, perform serial clinical and laboratory re-evaluation if fevers persist, and echocardiogram if typical peeling develops.

• If CRP is ≥3.0 mg/dL and/or ESR is ≥40 mm/hr, look for:

  • Positive echocardiogram; or

  • Three or more of:

    • Anaemia for age.

    • Platelet count ≥450 x10⁹/L after seventh day of fever.

    • Albumin ≤3.0 g/dL.

    • Raised ALT.

    • WBC ≥15 x 10⁹/L.

    • Urine WBC ≥10/high power field.

  • If either of the above applies, treat.

  • If neither of the above applies, perform serial clinical and laboratory re-evaluation if fevers persist, and echocardiogram if typical peeling develops.

Management of Kawasaki disease²⁹¹²

• Children with the condition are usually cared for as inpatients on paediatric or paediatric-cardiology units and put on bed rest, due to the risk of myocardial events.

• The mainstays of management are the use of aspirin and intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) to reduce fever and myocardial inflammation and to prevent or ameliorate cardiac sequelae (the main cause of morbidity and mortality associated with the condition).

• In some countries, corticosteroids are used additionally in severe cases.

• Follow-up echocardiography is useful in determining whether or not there have been any coronary artery complications.

• Percutaneous coronary intervention and coronary artery bypass grafting may be indicated in very severe cases with cardiac complications.

Aspirin

The routine use of aspirin in the management of febrile children is not recommended due to the danger of Reye's syndrome.

However, in Kawasaki disease, the antiplatelet and antipyretic effect of the drug provides the rationale for its use. The drug is used widely in a variety of high-dose and low-dose regimens, both in the acute and subsequent phases, and as long-term prophylaxis against coronary events in those who have coronary artery aneurysms. There is a scant evidence base to support its use and little useful research to decide on the optimal regimen. Usually higher doses are used in the acute inflammatory phases, followed by a lower antiplatelet dose in later phases. There have been recent concerns about aspirin dosing in the acute phase of Kawasaki disease, due to hypoalbuminaema, slow gastric emptying and high renal clearance causing toxic effects at lower dosing.¹

A Cochrane review in 2006 concluded that until good-quality randomised controlled trials are carried out, there is insufficient evidence to indicate whether children with Kawasaki disease should continue to receive aspirin as part of their treatment regimen.¹³

Children are more likely to develop Reye's syndrome if they also develop influenza or varicella whilst taking aspirin. It is advised that they receive the influenza vaccine and do not receive a varicella vaccine whilst taking aspirin.¹

IVIg

IVIg is the mainstay of treatment. It has been shown to reduce the incidence of coronary artery aneurysms from about 25% in the untreated to approximately 4%.⁸ 2 g/kg as a single infusion over 10-12 hours, together with aspirin, is the standard regime.

IVIg resistance is a problem in as many as 20% of cases and these children are at risk of cardiac complications unless they receive additional therapy. This may then be in the form of further IVIg, or corticosteroids, or a number of other possibilities.

Children treated with IVIg should have immunisations with live vaccines (eg, MMR) delayed for 3-11 months after treatment (UK recommendation is 3 months).

Adjunctive therapy in refractory cases

Approximately 10% to 20% of patients do not respond to initial intravenous immune globulin. For these patients, alternative treatments may be considered. Patients believed to be at high risk for development of coronary artery aneurysms may benefit from primary adjunctive therapy.⁸

The following agents have been used:

• Corticosteroids. These have traditionally been avoided, as early studies suggested they increased the complication rate. However, a meta-analysis in Japan showed addition of prednisolone in a dose of 2 mg/kg/day to IVIg treatment reduced coronary complications.¹⁴ Increasingly steroids are used as part of the first-line treatment for Kawasaki disease. Recent evidence suggests no harm and potential benefits. ¹⁵

• Anti-tumour necrosis factor (anti-TNF)-alpha therapies:

  • Infliximab (monoclonal antibody acting as TNF-alpha antagonist).¹⁶

  • Etanercept (a soluble TNF-alpha receptor).¹⁷

• Other immunosuppressive therapy:

  • Ciclosporin.

  • Cyclophosphamide.

  • Low-dose methotrexate.¹⁸

• Plasma exchange.

Management of coronary artery aneurysms

This is also an area of uncertainty. A paediatric cardiologist should be involved if there is evidence of dilation of coronary arteries. Regular echocardiograms and tests of cardiac function are required.

Percutaneous coronary intervention may be required for those at high risk of cardiac ischaemia, such as:

• Intracoronary thrombolysis.

• Balloon angioplasty.

• Cardiac stents.

• Ablation therapy.

Occasionally, coronary artery bypass surgery may be needed.

Long-term antiplatelet/anticoagulant therapies will be required, usually aspirin with either warfarin or low molecular weight heparin.

Complications of Kawasaki disease

• Sudden cardiac death.

• Myocardial infarction.

• Coronary artery aneurysms

• Coronary artery aneurysm rupture.

• Pericarditis.

• Myocarditis.

• Cardiac valvular disease.

• Cardiac dysrhythmia.

• Heart failure.

• Acute arthritis.

• Dehydration in the acute phase of the illness.

Recurrence of the condition (estimated to affect less than 1%).⁹

Prognosis of Kawasaki disease²

• Prognosis depends upon the degree of cardiac involvement.

• Although the majority of patients do well and do not experience major complications, up to 50% show echocardiographic evidence of cardiac impairment and mild mitral regurgitation.

• Children between the ages of 6 months and 9 years tend to do better than those younger or older (possibly due to earlier diagnosis). ¹

• 15-25% of untreated patients will experience coronary artery aneurysms but this figure is much lower if early diagnosis and therapy are achieved. 1% become giant aneurysms (>8 mm internal diameter).¹⁹

• Most deaths are due to cardiac complications and tend to occur between 15 and 45 days after the onset of fever. ¹

• Most (50-70%) coronary artery aneurysms regress after a period of 1-2 years, although giant aneurysms never resolve entirely and have a worse prognosis.

• Mortality varies between populations and treating centres but is in the range 0.08-3.7%. In the UK there were no reported deaths from Kawasaki disease in the period January 2013 to January 2015 in an analysis by the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit (BPSU).²⁰

• There have been no studies since then but children have died in the UK since 2015 from Kawasaki disease. UK mortality has been reported at approximately 2%.

• The long-term studies suggest over 90% survival over 30 years. Major adverse cardiac events do occur in children who have had coronary artery aneurysms but have not been shown in children without coronary artery aneurysms. ²¹